Islamophobia in Muslim-Majority Bangladesh: Interpersonal Experiences and Institutional Responses among Visibly Practicing Youth

Abstract

Islamophobia has been extensively documented in Western societies, yet empirical evidence from Muslim-majority contexts remains scarce. This cross-sectional survey examines the extents, forms, and consequences of Islamophobia among visibly practicing Muslims; university students, recent graduates, and young professionals in Bangladesh, the world’s third-largest Muslim-majority country. Drawing on the framework of epistemic racism, we recruited 1,655 participants through purposive sampling across all 64 administrative districts. Within this purposively sampled group of visibly practicing Muslim university students, recent graduates, and young professionals, 97.1% reported witnessing or experiencing Islamophobia, while 55.7% reported direct victimisation in educational or professional settings. The most common forms were dress-code discrimination (69.9%), verbal harassment (59.2%), and cultural mockery (51.7%), with teachers identified as the principal perpetrators (63.4%). Direct victimisation was significantly associated with female sex (AOR = 2.43; 95% CI: 1.93, 3.07), older age, and certain academic disciplines. Impacts included mental health deterioration, social withdrawal, and professional disengagement. Institutional responses were largely absent; only 4.4% of participants were aware of formal anti-discrimination policies. These findings indicate that reported experiences of Islamophobia can occur even in Muslim-majority contexts and may involve both interpersonal discrimination and perceived shortcomings in institutional responses. Future studies are warranted for in-depth analyses using more representative population-based studies. The study calls for urgent policy reform and stronger institutional accountability in Bangladesh and comparable settings.